CHAPTER 1: The Indian Wars

Hear ye, Dakotas! When the Great White Father at Washington sent us his chief soldier to ask for a path through our hunting grounds, a way for his iron road to the mountains and the western sea, we were told that they merely wanted to pass through our country, not to tarry among us, but to seek for gold in the far west. Our old chiefs thought to show their friendship and good will . . . . Yet before the ashes of the council fire are cold the Great Father is building his forts among us. . .. His presence here is an insult and a threat. It is an insult to the spirits of our ancestors. Are we then to give up their sacred graves to be plowed for corn? Dakotas, I am for war!
- RED CLOUD, Lakota



The British crown realized it had a problem when an angry Indian alliance of seven northwestern tribes captured nine English forts, and killed some 1,000 settlers (Hirschfelder and de Montano 8). After Chief Pontiac of the Ottawa tribe agreed to peace, the British set boundaries and regulations concerning land purchase in the Proclamation of 1763. However, the settlers and land prospectors simply ignored the restrictions-and the Indians-and continued to migrate westward. In an effort to enforce their regulations, the British crown stationed a standing army along the Indian boundaries. The colonists were resentful of the military presence, especially since the crown taxed the colonists in order to pay for the venture, and these and other grievances led to the American Revolution.

The majority of Indians allied themselves with the British during the Revolution for several reasons: the British positioned themselves as defenders of Indians lands against the land-hungry settlers; the British provided the Indians with goods that were no match for American goods, goods on which the Indians were now heavily dependent; and many American settlers were committing shameful acts against the Indians (Hirschfelder and de Montano 8). However, some Indians did side with the Americans, creating inter-tribal conflict that even divided and weakened the powerful Iroquois Nation.

After the Revolution, the British made no provisions for their Indian allies and signed away huge tracts of Indian land to the Americans. Despite the 1787 Northwest Ordinance, which stated that "Indian lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent," tens of thousands of settlers moved into the lands north of the Ohio River the following year (Utter 245). The Indians reacted to the invasions of their land by killing 1,500 settlers between 1783 and 1790 in raids led by Chief Little Turtle of the Miami. Little Turtle and his allies crushed Josiah Harmer's force in 1790, and the following year dealt the highest ranking officer in the U.S. Army, Arthur St. Clair, the worst military disaster in its history (Hirschfelder and de Montano 9). Little Turtle, and Blue Jacket of the Shawnees, were forced to sign the 1795 Treaty of Greenville when the U.S. troops finally defeated them. The treaty gave the Americans the lands northwest of the Ohio River, but the Indians retained some land for themselves, along with promises of annuities and military protection. In 1809, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was reversed with the signing of the Treaty of Fort Wayne, which opened the Northwest Territory to settlement. Angered by the cessation of Indian lands, Shawnee leader Tecumseh began gathering support amongst all eastern tribes in an effort to resist the onslaught. In 1811, after American troops burned the town of Tippecanoe to the ground, a war began which continued through the War of 1812. When the War of 1812 broke out, most Indians sided again with the British, and Tecumseh became a brigadier general in the British army. Tecumseh was killed in the 1813 Battle of the Thames, a defeat for the combined British and Indian forces. After the War of 1812, many tribes along the Eastern coast were coerced, without the aid of their British allies, into signing treaties that deprived them of huge tracts of their lands. Nearly all the tribes continued to occupy at least part of their ancestral lands until Andrew Jackson became president and used the government to forcibly remove them.

The policy of the fledgling U.S. government was to remove and assimilate the Indians. The government intended to remove the Indians to designated areas, educate them, and once they had "become civilized," assimilate them into American society. Although Thomas Jefferson was the first to suggest the removal policy, no tribes were forcibly removed until Andrew Jackson-called Sharp Knife by the Indians because he had killed thousands of Indians of the Five Civilized Tribes during his frontier days-took office (Brown 5). As President, Jackson sponsored the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which forced Indians to abandon their homelands and move to Indian Territory, which later became Oklahoma.

Those tribes not being moved under the law were losing their lands in battle. In 1832, the Sac and Fox Indians were forced to cede six million acres of Iowa's Mississippi River land in a bloody battle called the Black Hawk Massacre (Hirschfelder and de Montano 13). At about the same time, the Supreme Court decided two cases, Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worchester v. Georgia (1832), that gave Indians some federal protection, but the mandates were essentially disregarded by the state governments. In what has become known as the "Trail of Tears," 18,000 Cherokees were forced from their homes in the southeast under military escort in 1838. "Because the Cherokees numbered several thousands, their removal to the West was planned to be in gradual stages," explains Dee Brown in his book Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, "but discovery of Appalachian gold within their territory brought on a clamor for their immediate wholesale exodus" (7). From the Jacksonian perspective, the Indians had to go- despite the fact that the Cherokee had already accepted Thomas Jefferson's offer to assimilate; that they had established their own constitutional government with a senate, a house or representatives, and an elected chief; and that they had schools and a written language devised by Sequoyah (Norman 78). Because of inadequate preparations for the exodus, about 4,000 of the 18,000 Indians died from cold, hunger or disease along the winter trek. A Georgia volunteer said of the removal, "I fought through the Civil War and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest work I ever knew" (Wright 218). Between 1830 and 1840, about 100,000 Indians were forcibly removed from their homelands in the east to Indian Territory, where Indians and government officials pursued their goal of "educating" the Indians. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 provided annual appropriations from Congress for Indian education, originally given to the missionaries, but later taken over by the government. Andrew Jackson justified removal and assimilation as the only way to save Indians from extinction, claiming that they would gradually lose their "savage" habits and become "civilized," Christianized people (Hirschfelder and de Montano 14).

Lands west of the Mississippi were forever guaranteed by the U.S. government to the Indians that moved there, but white settlers ignored the policy. The government's response was to just make new policies. Justification for white land hunger was lifted to a lofty plane when the policymakers in Washington invented "Manifest Destiny" in 1845, the idea that Europeans were the dominant race and therefore were ordained by destiny to rule all of America (Brown 8). The encroachment on Indian lands was escalated when gold was discovered in California in 1848. The Indians responded by attacking the intruders, and the government responded in turn with an all-out military campaign. In addition to continuous white encroachment and government attack, the Indians now suffered from intertribal conflicts. The Indians native to the lands west of the Mississippi resented having to compete with the displaced tribes for buffalo, their chief source of food. The Fort Laramie treaty, signed in 1851, set boundaries between tribes, and also authorized troops to be stationed along the Oregon and Santa Fe trails in order to guarantee safe passage for white travelers.

Westward movement was slowed for a time during the Civil War. Indian allegiance was again divided, chiefly because some displaced tribes were angry that the federal government had failed to protect them after they were moved west. After Apache and Navajo Indians in the Southwest were provoked by settlers who had been capturing and selling Navajos as slaves, they and Union forces engaged in battle. Starved out, 8,000 Navajos were forced to walk some 350 miles to a forty-square-mile reservation in New Mexico where they remained in captivity for five years (Hirschfelder and de Montano 16). On November 29, 1864, a peaceful band of Cheyennes, led by Black Kettle, was preparing to camp at Sand Creek reservation for the winter when the military attacked the defenseless camp filled with some five hundred sleeping Indians. Despite the fact that both a white flag and a U.S. flag were mounted outside Black Kettle's lodge, a witness to the attack remarked, "There seemed to be an indiscriminate slaughter of men, women and children" (Weeks 104).

The events of the Civil War years left both Indians and whites embittered, and the government, whose attention necessarily had been devoted to the Civil War over the past four years, realized it had to resume pursuing a solution to the "Indian problem." Indian affairs at that time consisted mostly of negotiating treaties, acquiring land, regulating Indian trade, and arranging payments to Indians as specified in treaties. In 1824, the secretary of war upgraded the Indian Department to Bureau status, without the authorization of Congress, so it could be responsible for its own complex accounts. When reservations were formed, the Indian Office was responsible for overseeing the organization and running of the reservations, and providing subsistence for the people who were confined to the reservations. By the late nineteenth century, the government was treating Indians as wards, and treaty-making came to an end. Many of the 400 treaties that were signed between 1778 and 1871 were eventually broken by the U.S. government. During this time, the Indian Peace Commission, appointed to examine the problem of corruption in the Indian Office, reported: "The records are abundant to show that agents have pocketed the funds appropriated by the government and driven the Indians to starvation. It cannot be doubted that Indian wars have originated from this cause" (Hirschfelder and de Montano 16).

The years 1860 to 1877 witnessed the major assault by the U.S. government on the lands of the Plains Indians and the defensive warfare waged by the Indians. In 1866, warriors led by the Ogalala Indian Crazy Horse, massacred an attacking Colonel William Fetterman and his troops. The Modoc Wars were fought in 1872 and 1873, and the Red River War was fought in 1874 and 1875. In 1875, the Sioux gathered to stop greedy gold prospectors who swarmed the Black Hills, land sacred to the Sioux and theirs under treaty. In response to the Sioux uprising, the government sent troops after the Sioux. Crazy Horse was victorious in 1876 at the Battle of the Rosebud by preventing an American assault on their camp. A week later, General George Custer attacked a camp in the valley of Little Big Horn, not realizing that this was the Indians' main camp. Kill Eagle, a Blackfoot Sioux Chief, later said that the movement of Indians toward Custer's column was "like a hurricane . . . like bees swarming out of a hive" (Brown 294). Custer's forces suffered the worst defeat in U.S. history. Americans received the news in the midst of the centennial celebration, and the shocked nation clamored for revenge against the Indians. With the U.S. military bent on revenge, the Indian wars continued for another 14 years, with battles such as Bear Paw Mountain in 1877 and Skeleton Canyon in 1886. The Indian wars came to an abrupt halt with the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890. Following the assassination of the Indians' greatest surviving war leader, Sitting Bull, a group of leaderless Hunkpapas fled to the Ghost Dance camp of Big Foot. The Ghost Dance religion was started by the Paiute Indian Wovoka, and the government, unable to determine the meaning of it, outlawed ghost dancing. The Ghost Dance expressed itself through worship in the form of dancing and singing, and promised its worshipers the return of the Indian dead, the return of the buffalo, an end to the misery, and to some adherents, the disappearance of the white people from the country (Hirschfelder and de Montano 19). Upon hearing of Sitting Bull's death, Big Foot started his people toward the camp of Red Cloud, hoping Red Cloud could protect them from U.S. soldiers. However, before they could make it to Red Cloud's camp, they encountered and surrendered to cavalry forces. In his book Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Dee Brown explains the events that ensued when the troops began to disarm their prisoners:

The troops found only two rifles, one of them a new Winchester belonging to a young Minneconjou named Black Coyote. Black Coyote raised the Winchester above his head, shouting that he had paid much money for the rifle and that it belonged to him. Some years afterward Dewey Beard [one of Big Foot's warriors whose original name was Wasumaza] recalled that Black Coyote was deaf. "If they had left him alone he was going to put his gun down where he should. They grabbed him and spinned him in the east direction. He was still unconcerned even then. He hadn't his gun pointed at anyone. His intention was to put that gun down. They came on and grabbed the gun that he was going to put down. Right after they spun him around there was the report of a gun, was quite loud. I couldn't say that anybody was shot, but following that was a crash." (443-44)

The cavalry troops immediately began firing on the 350 Indians, killing men, women, and children indiscriminately. When the massacre was over, between 200 and 300 Indians were dead, and only 25 cavalry soldiers were dead, most of them struck by their own shrapnel (Brown 444). The dead were left where they fell due to an ensuing blizzard, and the survivors were taken to Pine Ridge where an Episcopal mission was cleared out as shelter for the Indians. It was the fourth day after Christmas:

When the first torn and bleeding bodies were carried into the candlelit church, those who were conscious could see Christmas greenery hanging from the open rafters. Across the chancel front above the pulpit was strung a crudely lettered banner: PEACE ON EARTH, GOOD WILL TO MEN. (Brown 445)

The Wounded Knee Massacre effectively ended what is know as "The Indian Wars." For a time, Indian resistance to white attacks was over and the Indians were at the mercy of the U.S. government.

The textbooks, old and new, cover the Indian wars in generally the same way. A chapter or one to two sections are devoted to the Indian wars. Typically they include coverage of Indian removals to reservations, descriptions of a few major battles, perhaps a map illustrating where some of the battles took place, and end with the Indians submitting to defeat. The only textbooks to cover the Indian wars in depth are The American Nation and A History of US. Coverage in The American Nation spans three sections and includes all of the major events that shapes the period. Three of the History of US volumes cover the wars, and it is the only textbook to question the grounds for the wars:

The Indian story should have been different. There could have been respect and honesty between the peoples. There could have been strong laws to prevent unfairness and brutality. There could have been more understanding. . . . Most of the new Americans just didn't seem to care much about Indians. They talked of "conquering" the lands and its ancient peoples. And that was what they did in brutal Indian wars. Should they have thought of cooperation instead of conquest? . . . The past can't be changed, but can we learn from it? (87-88)

A History of US is one of the seven currently used textbooks that ends its discussion of the Indian wars with Chief Joseph's surrender speech. Most of the textbooks choose to end the section on the Indian wars with this part of the speech: "My heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever." Chief Joseph's last attempt to free his people-in their 1,000 mile trek to Canada which was cut short 30 miles from the Canadian border by U.S. troops-should be included in the text. However, ending coverage of the Indian wars with his surrender speech leaves the student with the impression that all Indian resistance to the U.S. government was over. The next section, on the twentieth century, shows that this is not the case. It is obvious that the textbooks intentionally use Chief Joseph's surrender speech to portray Indians as a defeated people. While the earlier textbooks generally do not mention any Indians leaders, a majority of them mention Chief Joseph and his surrender speech. The textbooks appear to use the speech to bring the discussion on Indians to a close, and they consequently do not to cover Indians after the end of the Indian wars. A History of US: Reconstruction and Reform chooses to end its section with an excerpt from Chief Joseph's surrender speech that hints that Indian resistance is not over and looks toward a more positive future:

Whenever the white man treats the Indian as they treat each other, then we will have no more wars. We shall all be alike-brother of one father and one mother, with one sky above us and one country around us, and one government for all. (94)

Another problem with Indian coverage of the Indian wars is that seven of the ten currently used textbooks do not mention Wounded Knee, despite its significance. America: The People and the Dream states that the Battle of Little Big Horn was the last of the Indians wars, "although smaller uprisings occurred for years" (511). The United States: Past to Present also ignores Wounded Knee and ends with Custer: "The Indians killed every soldier, including Custer. The United States sent more troops to fight the Souix. These troops hunted the Sioux and other Indian groups until the Indians finally gave up" (314). A History of US gives brief coverage to Wounded Knee, mentioning it several times, but never describing the circumstances surrounding its occurrence. Compare this to The American Nation which devotes one page to Wounded Knee, including the Ghost Dance. One problem with The American Nation, however, is that it includes the following quote in its Wounded Knee coverage, attributed to Black Elk, an Ogalala Sioux holy man who witnessed both the Battle of Little Big Horn and the Wounded Knee massacre:

I did not know then how much was ended. When I look back now from this high hill of my old age, I can still see the [butchered] women and children lying [heaped and scattered all along the crooked gulch as plain as when I saw them with eyes still young]. And I can see that something else died there [in the bloody mud, and was buried in the blizzard.] A people's dream died there. [It was a beautiful dream. . .] (Brown 446)

The above quote is taken from Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, and the sections in parenthesis are the parts that were omitted when The American Nation reproduced the quote on page (519). Black Elk did not really say this passage, but this was not known at the time Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee was published in 1970. It was discovered about six years ago that the man who took down the account, John Neihardt, added this passage (Couser 205). This is important because the passage does not reflect Black Elk's true vision:

His vision is oriented toward a redemptive future. By contrast, the narrative moves toward an apocalypse that seems the fulfillment of all that proceeds it. The narrative structure implies that traditional culture ended with the battle. (Couser 205)

Since The American Nation was published in 1995, this oversight reflects that textbooks do not employ consultants who are experts in Native American history.

The previously used textbooks generally emphasize the negative aspects of the Indians when describing the wars. When battles are described, the settlers are placed in a humanistic light while the Indians are not, as in Exploring Our Country (1966): "A terrible war followed. Before it was over, 2,000 white persons-men, women, and children-were killed by Indian arrows and tomahawks. More than 6,000 Indians died" (47). The illustration that accompanies this description shows a settler family being attacked by Indians and the caption reads: "The whole family is fighting off the Indians. Again and again the long rifles are fired and reloaded. The youngest boy is pouring gunpowder from a powder horn, and the mother is pushing a bullet down with a ramrod" (47). All of the illustrations in Exploring Our Country (1965) show Indians attacking the whites, while none of the illustrations show the Indians being attacked. Five Centuries In America (1966) describes how there were 200 battles between the Indians and the U.S. military between 1865 and 1880, and then says: "Often the Army troops showed as much cruelty as the Indians themselves" (443). This reinforces the stereotype of whites as "civilized" who had to "stoop" to the level of "savages" during war, and of Indians as "savages" who are inherently violent.

The previously used textbooks also tend to devote less coverage to the circumstances that led to the battles. The currently used textbooks usually describe why battles occur. For example, the Battle of Little Big Horn occurred because gold prospectors invaded the Black Hills, sacred land to the Sioux, and therefore the Souix retaliated. However, some of the currently used textbooks do not describe the circumstances involving the battles, such as America: Yesterday and Today: ". . . in the battle of Little Big Horn, the Sioux Indians wiped out General George A. Custer's forces in less than twenty minutes" (250). Most of the textbooks only cover the most famous battles-Sand Creek or Little Big Horn. They often include other battles on a map, but do not describe any of the circumstances surrounding the battles. Students need to know why the Indians had to resort to war, that they were defending their land and their livelihood. Otherwise, students will conclude that Indians were inherently violent, when the Indians actually preferred peace. Many Indian war leaders were at first peacemakers, but turned to war after the U.S. government continually broke the treaties they had signed.

The twentieth century would lead to a new round of Indians wars, wars fought not on the battlefield, but in the courts and through organized protests. Throughout the twentieth century, Native Americans would battle the federal government for their legal and civil rights. Seen by many as a vanishing people, Native Americans entered the twentieth century determined to defy the odds. Once an apparently defeated and weary people, they had gained a renewed desire for survival, with hopes of reclaiming their culture and building a new dream for their people.

	Exploring Our Country	Living in the Americas	Living in the United States	Five Centuries in America	Liberty and Union	America! America!	The American People	America Past and Present	Our Country's History	The US: Its Past, Purpose and Promise
Tuscarora War	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Yamasee War	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Pontiac's War	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	N	N	Y
French and Indian War	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Proclamation of 1763	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	N	N	Y
Northwest Ordinance	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	N	N	Y
Chief Little Turtle	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N	N
Harmer's Defeat	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
St. Clair's Defeat	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of Fallen Timbers	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	N	N	N	N
Treaty of Greenville	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Treaty of Fort Wayne	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of Tippecanoe	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y
Tecumseh	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y
War of 1812	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y
Battle of Thames	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	N	N
Ft. Mims Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of Horseshoe Bend	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Civilization Fund Act	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Andrew Jackson's Indian policy	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y
Indian Removal Act	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	Y	N	Y
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N
Worchester v. Georgia	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Black Hawk Massacre	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	Y	N	Y
Sequoyah & Cherokee alphabet	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	N	Y	Y
Trail of Tears	N	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Manifest Destiny	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N
Fort Laramie Treaty	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N
Souix Uprising	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Chief Joseph	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	N
Black Kettle	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N
Sand Creek Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N
Fetterman's Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Modoc Wars	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N
Red River War	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of the Rosebud	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of Little Big Horn	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y
Crazy Horse	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	Y	N
Sitting Bull	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	Y	N
George Custer	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y
Bear Paw Mountain	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N
Skeleton Canyon	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N
Dawes General Allotment Act	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y
Wovoka and the Ghost Dance	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y
Wounded Knee Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	on map	N	Y
Red Cloud	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N
Geronimo	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N	N	N

Fig. 11

	America: Yesterday & Today	Exploring America's Heritage	The US: Past to Present	America Will Be	The US & Its Neighbors	The US: Its History & Neighbors	America: People & the Dream	The American Nation	A More Perfect Union	A History of US
Tuscarora War	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	N	N
Yamasee War	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	Y	N
Pontiac's War	N	N	Y	N	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	N
French and Indian War	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Proclamation of 1763	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Northwest Ordinance	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Chief Little Turtle	N	N	N	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	N
Harmer's Defeat	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
St. Clair's Defeat	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	N
Battle of Fallen Timbers	N	N	Y	Y	N	N	N	Y	Y	N
Treaty of Greenville	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	Y	Y	N
Treaty of Fort Wayne	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	Y
Battle of Tippecanoe	Y	N	N	Y	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
Tecumseh	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
War of 1812	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Battle of Thames	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	N
Ft. Mims Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Battle of Horseshoe Bend	N	N	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	N	Y
Civilization Fund Act	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Andrew Jackson's Indian policy	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y
Indian Removal Act	Y	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	N	Y
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y
Worchester v. Georgia	N	Y	N	Y	Y	N	N	Y	Y	Y
Black Hawk Massacre	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	N	N	N	Y
Sequoyah & Cherokee alphabet	Y	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Trail of Tears	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Manifest Destiny	N	Y	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
Fort Laramie Treaty	on map	N	N	Y	N	N	Y	Y	N	Y
Souix Uprising	N	Y	N	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	N
Chief Joseph	N	Y	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Black Kettle	N	Y	N	N	N	N	N	N	N	N
Sand Creek Massacre	on map	Y	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
Fetterman's Massacre	N	N	N	N	N	N	Y	on map	N	N
Modoc Wars	on map	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N	N
Red River War	on map	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	Y	N
Battle of the Rosebud	N	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N	N
Battle of Little Big Horn	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Crazy Horse	N	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Sitting Bull	N	Y	N	Y	Y	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
George Custer	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y	Y
Bear Paw Mountain	on map	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N	N
Skeleton Canyon	on map	N	N	N	N	N	on map	N	N	N
Dawes General Allotment Act	N	Y	N	N	N	N	Y	Y	Y	Y
Wovoka and the Ghost Dance	N	N	N	Y	N	N	N	Y	Y	N
Wounded Knee Massacre	on map	N	N	Y	N	N	on map	Y	Y	Y
Red Cloud	N	N	N	Y	N	Y	Y	N	N	N
Geronimo	N	Y	N	N	Y	Y	on map	N	N	Y

Fig. 12

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