We can only guess about where the earliest Mennonites came from. As the table in Appendix V indicates there were many migrations for differing reasons during this period of time involving both Mennonites and Germans in general. It is assumed the Mennonites came mostly from the Netherlands, Moravia and Switzerland. W.J. Rempel provides an intriguing glimpse into the complexity of this issue in his book. A seven-page excerpt can be found in Appendix II. Keep in mind the intense persecution the Anabaptists suffered during the 1500's in particular, which drove them to migrate to various parts of Europe in unpredictable patterns, based mostly on the search for safe-haven. There are no known 16th century records telling about their migration to Prussia. There are some name lists for settlers and certain localities which give names and call them Hollanders where we may assume that they were Mennonites.

The earliest migration to the Danzig area occurred circa 1535. As early as 1549 several congregations were established in this region. (List of villages in Marienwerder district) (List of villages in Danzig district) A large migration took place in 1562 upon the invitation of large estate owners who needed experienced people for draining and improving the swampland such as that in the vicinity of the Vistula River. They were promised liberal religious and economic rights.

The Mennonite contribution to reclaiming the land along the Vistula and Nogat Rivers during the years that followed did not go unnoticed. The experience of these settlers from the Netherlands in draining swamp land and turning it into productive farm land was very useful in this region. Useless lands were turned into profitable pastures and wheat farms. The cost to the first generation of settlers was very high. Untold numbers died from swamp fever. Some estimates place the toll as high as 80% of those arriving to settle there. In exchange for their labors and sacrifice they enjoyed toleration to live their lives as they saw fit.

In 1618 the Thirty Years War began, the result of a flare-up in the 100 year old animosity between Protestants and Catholics in Germany. The Catholic King of Bohemia, Ferdinand II, refused to resolve the grievances of the Protestant majority in his jurisdiction. In the resulting furor the Protestants invaded his palace on May 23 and threw two of his ministers through the window, quite literally. The dispute spread to all of Europe, eventually involving Spain, France, England, Germany, in short, all of the Continent. It is estimated that the Holy Roman Empire lost from 15 to 20 percent of its population with the worst damage being done in Germany. Villages suffered more than the fortified cities. Uncertainty, fear, disruption, and brutality marked everyday life.

The Peace of Westphalia was signed on October 24, 1648, in the city of Munster, Germany. The political outcome had long term effects. Switzerland and Holland became independent states. The Holy Roman Empire and the Hapsburg dynasty were gravely weakened and France emerged as the chief power on the Continent. The Anabaptists and Mennonites, primarily pacifists, were caught in the middle. Migration of the persecuted religious groups was disrupted. Records were lost or destroyed as armies ranged over the landscape. The practical outcome for family history research is that it further blurred the lines making genealogical research more difficult.

In 1642 King Wladislaw IV of Poland issued an edict favoring the Mennonite settlements in his territory. The wording of this edict seems to indicate the Mennonites had won a degree of respect of both the government and their neighbors.

Despite the good favor they enjoyed in the territory, Mennonites could not receive citizenship in the city of Danzig. The guilds and merchants of the city feared the apparent prosperity of these immigrants and would not allow the city council to expand too generously on its good feelings. This duality reared its ugly head in Danzig during the Swedish-Polish War of 1655-1660 and again in the Polish War of Succession of 1733-1735 when many of their homes were destroyed by the war and by those who resented them as a people.

Before 1772 Prussia consisted of a region later known as East Prussia (Ostpreussen) with the capital in Koenigsberg. Koenigsberg had been a duchy since 1525 and a kingdom of the Hohenzollern dynasty since 1701. The other region, later known as West Prussia (Westpreussen) included the Hanseatic cities of Danzig, Elbing, Thorn, and Culm, referred to as Polish Prussia before 1772. Most of our ancestors settled and lived in West Prussia.

East Prussia was decimated in the early 1700's by the plague. As a result Frederick I invited the Mennonites, along with other groups, to settle in and repopulate that region. In 1713 Mennonites from the West Prussia region accepted and moved into the Memel region near Tilsit. In 1724 they were forced to accept military service or leave. They chose to leave. In 1740 the conscription order was revoked and they returned to eventually establish thriving agricultural activities in the Memel region.

In 1772 King Friedrich II of Prussia annexed Polish Prussia (without the Danzig Territory) calling it West Prussia (Westpreussen) and united it with East Prussia. It was common knowledge in political circles that Prussia had its intentions for the northern portion of Poland. For this reason the Prussians did everything possible to isolate and crush the economic and political strength of Danzig and it's surrounding territories. Russia was reluctant to intervene in the 1790's when the Mennonites ran into difficulties emigrating from Prussia. For Moscow it was more important that they keep the peace with Prussia since Prussia was a much needed ally on the Eastern front with the Turks.

In 1793 King Friedrich Wilhelm II also annexed the Danzig and Thorn regions. Between the years 1793 and 1795 large areas of Poland which were called South Prussia (Suedpreussen) were added to his territory and later New East Prussia (Neu-Ostpreussen) was added as well. Koenigsberg was capital and coronation city of the Prussian kings.

After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 the kingdom of Prussia became known as "Die Vereinigten Preussischen Staaten" (United Prussian States) which now also included provinces like Schlesien/Silesia,

Brandenburg, Pommern/Pomerania and areas as far west as the Rhine province. The capital of Prussia was eventually moved to Berlin.

In this climate of political ferment the Mennonite community developed and grew in numbers in the western region of Prussia. (1776 Prussian Mennonite Census, by Village) The inhabitants of the Prussia Kingdom spoke several different languages, perhaps the principle language being High German. The Mennonites living in the Vistula Delta spoke as many as three different languages: Dutch, High German, and Low German (Plattdeutsch).

The Low German spoken by many Mennonites of the previous generation has its roots in the 5th century when "Old Saxon" was spoken in Europe (450-800 AD). Subsequently a large contingent of these people left the continent and settled on the island of Britain. Their language evolved into what is now known as Old English. The remainder stayed on the continent and their speech evolved into Old Low German (800-1200 AD). This Low German developed into two branches with one of them being called Low Saxon or known as Nether Saxon in Holland today.

This Lower Saxon or Plattdeutsch is spoken today in northern Germany among the common people as well as the northern provinces of the Netherlands adjoining Germany. The term Plattdeutsch is derived from the word "platt" meaning clear, popular, understandable and "deutsch" for German. In other words, it was the vernacular of the German-speaking areas. So why is High German the dominant language today?

To understand the transition in languages in this part of northern Europe we need to take a step back to the 1200's. In the mid-13^th century the Hanseatic League was formed by three prosperous cities of northern Europe for commercial and trade purposes. This commercial alliance, which eventually grew to include some 70 cities of northern Europe, the Scandinavian countries, and Britain, used Low German as it's official language for all trade, commerce, and legal affairs (1250-1540 AD).

With the advent of a new alliance of traders in the mid 1500's this balance of power shifted. The political coalition of the Hanseatic League, which spoke Low German, suddenly lost its power and influence. In just two decades almost 90% of all trade shifted to the Dutch and German economic coalition that spoke High German.

With the collapse of the Hanseatic League came a corresponding loss of self-confidence and even cultural identity for the former member cities of the Hanseatic League. Meanwhile the wealthy merchants of the south of Germany gained prominence, having participated in the Dutch takeover of the trade lanes and activity. These merchants spoke High German. With this economic shift, beginning in the first half of the 1500's, came the financial incentive for people of the northern regions to adopt High German. It was considered politically and economically convenient to speak High German.

Dutch remained the primary language for the Mennonite communities in Prussia until the latter half of the 18^th century. The Mennonite Encyclopedia states that at the same time "the native language of the country (Prussia) was a form of Low German or Plattdeutsch with pecular (sic) local characteristics, spoken in some form in all of North Germany." Eventually the Plattdeutsch spoken by the Mennonites incorporated words adopted from Polish and Russian, as the people migrated and lived in the respective areas.

During the second half of the 16^th century the Mennonite population gradually adopted the Low German of the area until it became the primary language, replacing Dutch. At the same time High German was being used increasingly for sermons and by the higher class Mennonites. The first groups of settlers to move to the Ukraine spoke mostly Low German, coming from the land-less laborer class of Mennonite society. It is helpful to note that the transition from Dutch to Low German to High German was not consistent throughout the settlements. This accounts for the varying language preferences from one Mennonite group to the next as they came to the US and Canada. An English/Plattdeutsch Dictionary is now available in print and on the Internet. It reflects the cumulative changes to this language called Plattdeutsch.

The oldest and most senior congregations were those of the city of Danzig where both the Flemish and Frisian Mennonite congregations were active from the 1500's on. Around the beginning of the 1600's a church was established in the Elbing area. Later these two congregations were linked with the church in Rosenort. In or near the year 1735 the "congregation" as the Mennonite community was referred to divided into four major sections to better serve the far flung communities. The First Danzig Family Book, Index The Second Danzig Family Book, Index

These sections were Rosenort, Tiegenhagen, Ladekopp (this included Ohrlof), and Furstenwerder. Many of the subsequent records make reference to these sections. Further to the southeast another community existed based in Heubuden, which included Marienburg. This congregation elected its own elders in 1728. Additional resources and church records, Prussia

The Vistula Delta area came under the sovereign rule of Prussia in 1772. In 1780 Frederick the Great issued his edict of toleration aimed at pacifying the Mennonites and putting an end to the discrimination they had endured for some 200 years.

After the passing of King Friedrich II in 1786, his successor and nephew King Friedrich Wilhelm II was not nearly as tolerant towards Mennonites as his great uncle. Military advisors made him review the land holdings of Mennonites. The military tax system was based on land ownership, and since Mennonite land was exempt from military contribution, he agreed with the military that Mennonite land holdings had to be frozen at present levels. This aggravated the situation for the young couples who wanted to begin farming but couldn't buy land. Many were being forced into poverty and servitude, due to the absence of alternative sources of income.

The edict issued in 1780 did not, however, satisfy the Mennonite desire for freedom to live as their conscience dictated. This accumulated dissatisfaction, added to the new restrictions placed on them by Friedrich Wilhelm II, provided strong incentive for discontent. The arrival of George Trappe, emissary of Catherine II, and the offer he made to the Mennonite community couldn't have come at a better time. This explains the enthusiastic reception the Mennonite community afforded Catherine's offer and the immediate response from the community.